Guatemala as Cold War History, by Richard H. Immerman

From the time of its colonization at the hands of Spanish Conquistadors in the early 1500’s, Guatemala has suffered under the oppression of dictator after dictator. These dictators, who ruled only with the support of the military and only in their own interests, created a form of serfdom; by 1944, two percent of the people owned 70 percent of the usable land. The Allies’ victory in WWII marked democracy’s triumph over dictatorship, and the consequences shook Latin America. Questioning why they should support the struggle for democracy in Europe and yet suffer the constraints of dictatorship at home, many Latin Americans rallied to democratize their own political structures. A group of prominent middle–class Brazilians opposed to the†¦show more content†¦In 1951, Colonel Jacobo Arbenz Guzman succeeded Arevalo. Guzman, as well as continuing Arevalo’s reforms, implemented his own liberal reforms including a radical redistribution of land. This program involved the redistribution of one hundred and sixty thousand (160,000) acres of uncultivated land owned by an American owned firm that was then called United Fruit Company (and is now called Chiquita). Under previous governments United Fruit had managed to acquire forty-two (42) percent of the nation and had been granted exemption from all taxes and duties on both imports and exports. Though United Fruit was compensated for the land, many people both within the company and with strong ties to the company began to fear that more land would be taken from the company at the hands of the Guzman regime. Together with many other individuals with positions of power within the American government, they were able to convince President Dwight D. Eisenhower that Guzman had to be removed from power. The United States had never been friendly to socialism and communism and had been wary since the beginning of the Soviet Union, with whom the United States reluctantly allied in WorldShow MoreRelatedSummary Of Killing Hope By William Blum1935 Words   |  8 PagesHeidi Michaud History 333 Prof. Mary Duncan 17 May, 2015 Examining U.S. Motivation in the Guatemalan Coup In William Blum’s Book, Killing Hope, Blum claims that the U.S. backed a CIA overthrow of the Guatemalan Government in 1954.. Blum challenges that the motivation for the coup was not based on a true belief that Guatemala’s President Jacobo Arbenz was leaning towards communism, and alludes to the the idea that the true motivation for the Coup was the threat to economic gains to The

The Privacy Invasion of Consumers Through the Internet...

The Privacy Invasion of Consumers Through the Internet and Bluetooth Devices ABSTRACT Faster, easier, and cheaper access to a plethora of information, products and people is a primary stimulus for the growing number of online consumers who use the Internet to fulfill information foraging, communication and commerce needs. Oddly enough, these conveniences appear to override users concerns of privacy invasion. As the mechanisms behind information technologies become increasingly transparent, users must trust the companies producing the products to protect them from privacy invasion and refrain from deceitful consumer information practices. Should consumers continue to put faith in companies who may be more concerned about†¦show more content†¦In 1998, the Federal Trade Commission determined that very few companies were divulging their usage of consumers’ personal data (Labalme â€Å"Fair Information Practices†). In an effort to encourage fair information practices, the FTC created guidelines for company privacy policies (â€Å"Enforcing Privacy Promises†). The guidelines, known as the Fair Information Practice Principles urge companies to clearly define the following: the company’s information practices; the consumer’s option to accept, decline, or specify usage of personal information; the consumer’s right to access personal data collected; the company’s affirmation of data accuracy and security; and the company’s intent to enforce the privacy policy (Labalme â€Å"Fair Information Practices†). As a result of the industry’s failure to adhere to the FIPP guidelines, the FTC urged Congress to create laws protecting privacy rights of consumers. Siding with corporate capitalists in favor of industry self-regulation, Congress declined to help. 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The Boy in Striped Pyjamas Free Essays

The story is mostly told from the viewpoint of a child, eight year old Bruno. His father is an SS Officer and the family move from Berlin into a house near the grounds of a concentration camp. Bruno thinks that the fence exists so that animals cannot escape. We will write a custom essay sample on The Boy in Striped Pyjamas or any similar topic only for you Order Now Schmuel laughs, but not unkindly and he informs Bruno that the purpose of the fence is to restrain the Jewish prisoners. The sadistic SS lieutenant beats to death the Jewish house servant, and following this Bruno discovers Schmuel working in his home. He gives him cake to eat, and at this point the lieutenant enters and notices the crumbs around Schmuel’s face. He accuses Schmuel of stealing food, and Schmuel denies it. He explains that he and Bruno are friends, and that this is why Bruno gave him the cake. Bruno is frightened of the lieutenant, and without regard for the consequences to his friend, he fears for himself and denies all knowledge of knowing Schmuel and says that he did not give him the cake. As children do, Bruno misunderstands the word and hears his new home referred to as â€Å"out with. This implies that the story is based on Auschwitz Shortly after their arrival, Bruno’s sister, twelve year old Gretel becomes increasingly more orientated towards the Nazi doctrine due to her attraction to the SS Lieutenant Kurt Kotler, her father’s underling. He subtly encourages Gretel’s feelings towards him, and it soon becomes clear that the SS Lieutenant is a particularly cruel psychopath. Brunoâ €™s mother Elsa does not share the Nazi beliefs of her husband and daughter; however she is extremely afraid to voice her concerns. Bruno is too young to understand what is happening around him. He asks his father why he sees people wearing striped pyjamas. His father tells him that they are not people, and that they are only Jews. Although he is told not the leave the boundaries of the house, Bruno, like most young boys, becomes bored and decides to explore. He finds himself at the perimeter fence of the concentration camp and it is here that he meets Schmuel. Schmuel is a Polish Jew; he is the same age as Bruno and is a prisoner within the concentration camp. Bruno finds him sitting behind the fence wearing his striped pyjamas, and it is here that they strike a friendship. Along with his father, Schmuel has been captured and taken away from his mother and siblings. The enormity of his suffering is apparent in his appearance, it is visible in his eyes, his body language, and he is extremely thin. When Bruno gives food to Schmuel, the extent of his starvation is obvious in the ravenous way that he eats. The two boys have polar opposite experiences of the war. Bruno is completely naive and Schmuel is experiencing the agonising consequences. It appears that the concentration camp has turned a young boy into an adult. Schmuel is never irritated by Bruno’s naivety he simply responds with patience. It is clear that Schmuel is particularly sharp; he catches on quickly and almost instinctively seems to know what he can expect from Bruno. Schmuel appears to have accepted his way of life. A few days later Bruno visits Schmuel at the camp fence and finds him covered in bruises. It is clear by the condition of his face that he has received a particularly severe beating. As is his nature, Schmuel does not blame Bruno, and their friendship is untarnished. This is the beauty of Schmuel, many people, children and adults, would turn bitter at this experience and develop a real hatred for the Germans. Schmuel understands completely that the fault is not with Bruno. He does not resent the fact that Bruno is not in danger, or that he lives a comfortable life with his Nazi family. Schmuel is a truly good natured, forgiving and incredibly wise little boy. Schmuel tells Bruno that his father has disappeared, and that he cannot find him within the concentration camp. Neither boy has any notion that he has probably been gassed, and Bruno agrees to enter the camp and help Schmuel to look for him. It is here that the most harrowing scene of the book takes place. How to cite The Boy in Striped Pyjamas, Papers

Tax Practitioners Board

Question: Discuss about the Tax Practitioners Board. Answer: Introduction The tax agents tend to perform a vital service with regards to the interpretation of the complex Australian tax system and ensure that the tax returns are filed in an accurate and timely manner. Like other professional services which are regulated, these agents are also regulated by the TPB (Tax Practitioners Board). In this regard, TASA (Tax Agent Services Act 2009) and Code of Professional Conduct are critical regulatory frameworks adopted by TPB which by virtue of mandatory registration with the board is applicable on the tax agents as well. Code of Profession conduct lists down relevant professional standards along with ethical conduct that tax agents are expected to comply by when providing services to clients. This code includes provisions related to ensuring that the agent acts with integrity and honesty, acting of the agent in an independent manner and thereby offer correct advice to the client without any adverse influence, safeguarding the confidentiality of client under all circumstances, acting and care while displaying competence in relation to the services offered. Clearly, adherence to these rules would act as a key enabler for the industry growth and maintenance of service standards which in the long term would enhance the customer satisfaction (TPB, 2010). In the event of any breach on the part of the tax agents with regards to any of the principles highlighted in the code, TPB in accordance with TASA has the following options (TPB, 2010). Sanctions may be imposed for breaching of the code by the tax agent. Civil penalty may be imposed in case of breach of provisions in the code that invoke provisions related to penalty of civil nature. If the TPB is of the opinion that the given tax agent is no longer fit too offer services, the respective registration of the tax agent would be terminated and thus the tax agent would no longer be able to offer services. Examples of case laws Jack v Tax Agents Board of New South Wales [1997] AATA 678 Su and Tax Agents Board of South Australia [1982] AATA 127 Toohey and Tax Agents Board [2009] AATA 142 Bolkiah (Prince Jefri) v KPMG (a firm) [1999] 1 All ER 517 From the above discussion, it is apparent, that enforceability to the code is ensured by the TPB by the provision of various penalties as outlined below. Further, the TPB is also authorised to conduct enquiries on individual tax agents who are suspected of causing breach of the above mentioned code and various principles. As a result, amongst the tax agents, the adherence of the code would be expected to be high and hence this code has a major influencing role on the industry regulation by ensuring that the professional standards expected from the tax agents are not only objectively defined but enforceability of the same is also assured. Besides, the ethical standards also are encompassed by these which are critical considering the vulnerability of most clients when it comes to tax matters as there information on the subject matter is minimal (Walpole Salter, 2014). References TPB 2010, Code of Professional Conduct, Tax Practitioners Board, Available online from https://www.tpb.gov.au/TPB/Publications_and_legislation/Board_policies_and_explanatory_information/TPB/Publications_and_legislation/EP/0402_TPB_EP_01_2010_Code_of_Professional_Conduct.aspx (Accessed on September 29, 2016) Walpole, M Salter, D 2014,Regulation of tax agents in Australia, EJournal of Tax Research, Vol. 12, No.2, pp. 335-358

The United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights free essay sample

This paper critically analyzes the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The following paper critically analyzes the United Nation?s Universal Declaration of Human Rights with reference to two events, that of racial apartheid that was the official policy of South Africa and the systematic raping of Bosnian women during the conflict in that region. From the paper: `According to the United Nation?s Universal Declaration of Human Rights, ?Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty. (UN Website)`

Comparison of The Reluctant Fundamentalist and Flight

Comparison of The Reluctant Fundamentalist and Flight Empathy is one of the things that distinguish a human being from other species. This concept can be understood as the ability of an individual to recognize and understand the feelings and emotions of another person.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Comparison of Empathy in the Novels The Reluctant Fundamentalist and Flight specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In some cases, the word empathy implies that a person can accept the humanity of others despite social, economic, or political differences. This paper is aimed at discussing two novels, namely The Reluctant Fundamentalist written by Mohsin Hamid and Flight by Sherman Alexie. These novels have recently attracted much attention of critics and scholars. One of the main themes that the authors explore is that the ability to empathize can often be impeded by the borders of race, nationality or culture. Moreover, it can be limited by the memories of violence, humiliation, and loss. Nevertheless, both Mohsin Hamid and Sherman Alexie create protagonists who can transcend these borders. These authors focus on the idea that empathy is essential for the fulfilling life of an individual. The writers also undermine popular stereotypes about the behavior of an individual. For instance, Mohsin Hamid shows that the need to achieve success does not deprive people of their ability to feel loyalty to ones country or fellow countrymen. In turn, Sherman Alexie demonstrates that different worldviews and ideologies do not necessarily separate people and make them hostile to one another. These are the main questions that should be examined in more detail. Special attention should be paid to the narrative techniques that the writers employ. They rely on the first-person narration which is particular suitable in those cases, when the author wants to focus on the feelings, attitudes, and emotions of the protagonist, rather than people with whom he/she interacts. For inst ance, Sherman Alexie starts his novel with the following introduction. ‘Call me Zits. Everybody calls me Zits. That’s not my real name, of course. My real name isn’t important’ (Alexie 1). To a great extent, this is an allusion to the famous novel Moby Dick by Herman Melville. Similarly, at the beginning of Mohsin Hamid’s novel, Changez introduces himself to the reader and identifies oneself as a Pakistani. Overall, this form of narrative voice is important because it implies that the major characters may be very subjective when evaluating the behavior of other people and their own actions. Overall, such form of story-telling is often regarded as unreliable narration. It is possible to say that subjectivity is one of the things that prevent a person from being empathetic because he/she is unable to place oneself in the position of others or look at the problem from a different perspective.Advertising Looking for essay on comparative literatu re? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This statement is particularly applicable to Zits and his unjustified hatred toward others. Moreover, they tend to focus on their own experiences and may disregard the feelings of others. So, extreme subjectivity is one the main challenges that both Changez and Zits have to overcome. There is another thing that Zits and Changez have in common. They are aware that they are different from the majority of the population since they are perceived as non-white people. They also understand that they may not be fully accepted by others. This is one of the things that the protagonists are keenly aware of. For instance, Changez knows that as a Pakistani he had to face more challenges when he was applying to Princeton (Hamid 4). In turn, Zits also understands that he has a complex identity. In particular, the protagonist says, â€Å"I’m not really Irish or Indian. I’m a blank sky, a hu man solar eclipse† (Alexie 5). He cannot identify with any particular group in part because he has never felt the care of his mother or father (Hamid 3). This lack of care is the underlying cause of his animosity toward others. On the whole, the problem of identity is important for each of these characters. Changez wants to become a full member of the new society, but at the same time, he is attached to his Pakistani heritage. In turn, Zits is convinced that the community in which he leaves is hostile to him, in part because his father was a Native American. Thus, the concept of identity plays an important role in each of these novels. In both cases, the characters understand that they are different from others. This is one of the main things that should be taken into account by the readers of these novels. One can identify other barriers that can make empathy very difficult for the protagonists. For instance, Changez has to be competitive in the workplace, and this competitio n prompts an individual to focus on his/her strengths, but it is difficult for him/her to be sentimental or compassionate. On the whole, the author shows that Changez’ need to achieve success as a professional and his willingness to integrate himself into the society can often impede his ability to empathize with other human beings. Changez has a chance to climb a career ladder in the firm but he eventually rejects this opportunity and returns to his homeland. So, one should remember about this decision when discussing this character. This is the critical moment in the development of his character and his attitudes toward others.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Comparison of Empathy in the Novels The Reluctant Fundamentalist and Flight specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In his turn, Zits is afflicted by the memories of abuse both at home and in school. He cannot expect anything good from other people, especiall y from adults. Moreover, this boy is keenly aware of the social inequality that has become typical of the modern American society. For instance, Zits says, â€Å"I hate my country. There are so many rich people who do not share† (Alexie 26). It should be noted that this boy frequently uses the word hate, and it is directed against various social, ethnic, or religious groups. The protagonist does not explain why he feels in such a way. He cannot even accept the possibility that other people can face the same misfortunes. Certainly, one has to admit that this boy has endured a lot of suffering, but he cannot accept that other people do not deserve his hatred. So, at the beginning of the novel, empathy is not typical of him and he even tries to reject it. This is how the character behaves at the very beginning. Nevertheless, Mohsin Hamid and Sherman Alexie show that an individual can overcome these obstacles that prevent a person from being empathetic. To some extent, they are a ble to recognize the humanity of other people and see that they can encounter the same problems. However, their empathy takes different forms. When speaking about Changez, one should first speak about the September 11 attacks and increasing suspicion of Pakistani people. This is why Changez begins to empathize with his compatriots, especially when he notices that they can be treated unjustly. This is why he quits his job at a prestigious consulting firm and prefers to move back to Pakistan. On the whole, the behavior of this character undermines the so-called common sense story according to which an individual strives primarily for success. Certainly, it is important for the wellbeing of a person, but he/she also wants to have a sense of belonging to a certain community. Without it the life of a person can hardly be fulfilling. This is one of the reasons why Changez chooses to highlight his Pakistani descent, for example, by growing his beard (Hamid 130). Later, he decides to become a teacher in a Pakistani university, but he could have made a career in a prestigious American firm. This is how he deviates from the traditional common-sense story. Still, one should bear in mind that his empathy is primarily directed to his compatriots; Mohsin Hamid does not show that Changez can be equally compassionate toward people representing other nationalities or religions. So, his empathy still has national boundaries and to a great extent it is very limited. The main protagonist of Flight also undergoes a dramatic change. Sherman Alexie is able to create a series of flashbacks during which Zits places himself in the position of other people. For example, he sees himself as a mute Indian boy, an Indian hunter, and most importantly the father of the protagonists. On the whole, these flashbacks demonstrate to him that his hatred leads only to self-destruction. He can see that other people can encounter the same problems or similar forms of injustice.Advertising Looking for essay on comparative literature? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Thus, he can see the futility of violence and its adverse impacts on an individual. He understands that his deviant behavior, such as shooting can actually harm other people who have nothing to do with problems. So, in this way, Sherman Alexie was able to show how empathy could overcome such barriers as the memory of loss and the feeling of alienation. Only when he comes to this conclusion, he finds the family where he can feel at rest. On the whole, Sherman Alexie has been able to show the transformation of the main character and this is one of his major achievements as a writer. These novels tell the stories of people are different in terms of age, education, nationality, and cultural background. However, they struggle to find their way to empathy. The protagonist of Sherman Alexie’s novel is affected by alienation from others, abuse, and the feeling of loss. This is one of the reasons why he is obsessed with hatred, and the very idea of empathy is unacceptable to him. In h is turn, Changez is affected by the need to achieve success and integrate himself into the society. However, due to various external factors, the main characters realize that the ability to empathize is critical for the happiness of a human being. It gives a person a sense of belonging. This is one of the messages that Sherman Alexie and Mohsin Hamid try to convey. The main message that the writers try to convey is that political, cultural or national differences do not deprive a person of his/her right to empathy. Alexie, Sherman. Flight, New York: Grove Press, 2007. Print. Hamid, Mohsin. The Reluctant Fundamentalist, New York: Harcourt, 2007. Print.

Nuclear Proliferation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Nuclear Proliferation - Essay Example He asserted the strong linkage between these ecological issues which have potential threats for the environment. Having discussed the issue of nuclear danger, he offered his insightful views on the specific policies regarding the nuclear proliferation. In this regard, he highlighted the change in the nuclear policy that has been witnessed over the past few years and termed it as the Bush doctrine. Prior to the invasion of Iraq, all the previous presidents had tried to resolve the nuclear issue diplomatically. However, in the backdrop of the tragic incident of 9/11, Bush took a new preemptive stance like the United States’ brief exploration of possibility of the first strike on China before it could build the bomb. Schell defended this preemptive policy in the context of terrorist attack of 9/11 on the United States. Instead of condemning this preemptive policy, Schell continued to elaborate the possible future nuclear threats in the post 9/11 world. He presented the significant example of Pakistan and imparted awareness to the audience Pakistani becoming the nuclear state. The focus of his speech was on Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan’s activities of offering to sell the nuclear weapons to other states as well as to the terrorist groups. This account of Khan’s proliferation activities was supported by a former Ambassador to Pakistan present there who further explained to the audience details of the Khan’s efforts to sell the nuclear technology. The stance of Schell in this regard was quite daunting and he was of the opinion that the only solution to this problem was disarming the nuclear state. Schell said the major powers would have to offer the biggest ever bargaining chip to use for the peace talk if they wanted to take some serious steps. Schell clarified that it was not an ideal istic solution although, according to him, it was necessary if the nuclear proliferation was ever to work. Finally, Schell advised that it had been over 60 years

The event that has change my life span Research Paper

The event that has change my life span - Research Paper Example Prior to the birth of my son I took my job for granted. The birth of my son was the greatest day in my life. Being a parent has matured me a lot. I now have a greater focus in life. I plan on studying for a career at a local university. Education can help humans develop their skills and capabilities in order to succeed in the workplace. In the United States approximately 33% of the population has a college degree (Abel). I want to study in order to become more educated so I can help my kid with his school work as he continues to grow. I want to be the best parent I can for my kid. My parents were always there for me and I want to do the same for my kid. â€Å"In order to fully enjoy effective parenting you will have to follow your rectified heart† (Yuan). Work Cited Page Abel, D. 17 May 2000. â€Å"Going Backwards: US Falls Behind in College Graduate Rate† 22 March 2011. Census.gov. 23 March 2011. â€Å"U.S. and World Population Clock.† U.S. Census Bureau. 23 Mar ch 2011. Tradingeconomics.com. 2011. â€Å"United States Unemployment Rate† 22 March 2011. Yuen, S. 2011. â€Å"The Three Virtues of Effective Parenting.† 22 March 2011.

Discuss water - the sea, the hurricane, the flood - as natural and Essay

Discuss water - the sea, the hurricane, the flood - as natural and symbolic forces that are associated with the Zeitoun, the protagonist, and the major conflicts in the narrative - Essay Example According to Zeitoun, water is a natural and symbolic force because the hurricane caused the worst natural disaster ever recorded in the American history. However, according to Eggers, the disaster was not entirely natural. The book gives the finest investigations of qualified journalists who did their research during the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. According to the book, New Orleans became vulnerable to the disaster as a result of human error (Eggers 67). This is because the federal and the state authorities responded inadequately to the disaster. Many individuals acted alone. This is because most individuals were ignorant and selfish. The protagonist in the book is Zeitoun. He is a Muslim who was raised in Syria. He worked at the sea of a fisherman for twenty years. While working, he travelled across the universe and finally settled in the US. When the Hurricane Katrina approached New Orleans in 2005, his wife and children shifted to Baton Rouge. Zeitoun remained in the city to watch over their home, rental properties and the ongoing job sites. As a result of the storm, most houses in their neighborhood were flooded to the second floor. This made Zeitoun to start moving around in a canoe. He distributed the supplies that he had to his neighbors who were in need. He also moved them to higher grounds and saved dogs that had been abandoned (Eggers 109). The major conflict that arises in the narrative is the arrest of Zeitoun when he had not done any wrong. The National Guardsmen of the US army arrested and took him into custody on his property. They accused him of being a terrorist and treated him brutally. While under the custody of the National Guardsmen, Zetoun became a victim of physical and verbal abuse. Later, he was charged of looting $500. Contrary to the normal amount of the bail charged for the crime, Zeitoun was charged ten times more (Eggers

Freuds Concept of the Unconscious Hitchcocks Psycho

Freuds Concept of the Unconscious Hitchcocks Psycho In this essay I have analysed the famous Hitchcock film psycho using Freuds concept of the unconscious. The bleak, monochrome film is made more effective by Bernard Herrmanns sparse, but driving, recognisable score, first played under the frantic credits. The criss-crossing patterns, like mirror-images, are correlated to the split, schizophrenic personality of a major protagonist. The initial usage of staccato chords immediately provides us with a hint of detachment of a character to be involved, this along with the titles created by Saul Bass, (who was known for his style reminiscent of 1920s Soviet poster art) immediately provide the audience with apprehension. The screech of the violins is representative of birds, which we later see depicted throughout the film. Many of Hitchcocks recurring images are important in Freudian dream interpretation. It is apparent right from the beginning what lies ahead is no ordinary story, and a strange feeling of anxiety swells with the visual and musical intro. Screenwriter Joseph Stefano adapted Robert Blochs novel Psycho into what would become one of Alfred Hitchcocks influential works and one of the classic films of all time. We are led to believe Psycho is a film about cloak-and-dagger affairs, misappropriation, murder, secrets, and mental struggle; although in the darkness, there lies an examination of the temptations of wealth, sexual identity, gender roles, sexual expression, it depicts the appalling events which can occur with the departure of normal advancement. Psycho reiterates to its viewers that people sometimes provide a visual falsity of who they are and stories we have read as children of a bad person visually representative of their character traits in life are not often the case, and when the personal development has not reached an expected level that immoral crimes may occur. Sigmund Freud wrote about the human psyche in the 1920 essay Beyond the Pleasure Principle, and fully elaborated upon it in The Ego and the Id (1923). Freuds theory of the subconscious consists of three parts, the Id, the Ego, and the Super Ego and the interaction between them all. The Id is considered to be chaotic, the center for animalistic impulses, and is governed by the pleasure principle, otherwise known as instant gratification. It is also the location of the libido, which is our life force or our sexual drive. The Ids driving instinct is for self-preservation. The Ego is quite different from the Id, it is the broker between the Id and the Super Ego. The Ego is also the personality we show others, founded upon the reality formula. The Super Ego represents our conscience or moral standards, ideas of right and wrong which are permanently instilled in our minds by our parents or other authority figures. Freud regarded the mind to be like an Iceberg (see Figure 1) where the uncon scious lies below the surface, and the conscious above. To conclude: the Id demands gratification, the Ego responds to reality (civilization), and the Superego which is our moral code and also is dictated by the demands of society. The storyline of this film involves a young woman who through the pleasure principle of the id steals $40,000 from her employer. Marion is motivated by her desire to settle down and have a family with her lover Sam and to have financial freedom. Her super ego and the moral side have been outbalanced by her personal desires to live the perfect life with her lover. She ends up on a personal odyssey towards terror when she encounters a disturbed young hotel proprietor who is dominated by his mother. Throughout the film is a parallel to psychoanalysis as it attempts to piece together limited parts to understand as a coherent whole. Even the films cinematographic techniques reinforce individual images as being composed of fragmentary pieces. Part of Psychos visual appeal comes from Hitchcocks use of montage. James Naremore quotes Hitchcock describing montage as puttinglittle bits and pieces of film together Marion drives to her lover and a curtain of rain leads her to check into the Bates Motel. Paths and steps and roads are prevelant in Pyscho , the path between the motel and house which symbolises a path between the normal and the insane, in Psycho stairs lead to madness. In his documentary The PervertHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Perverts_Guide_to_CinemaHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Perverts_Guide_to_Cinemas Guide to Cinema, Slavoj Ã…Â ½iÃ…Â ¾ek remarks that Norman Bates mansion has three floors, paralleling the three levels that psychoanalysis attributes to the human mind: the first floor would be the superego (Figure 2a), where Bates mother lives on; the ground floor is then Bates ego (Figure 2b), where he functions as an apparently normal human being; and finally, the basement would be Bates id (Figure 2c). For Freud, most repressed memories relate to sexuality. One type, for example, derives from the primal scene, where the child witnesses his parents having sex, then represses the memory of the scene. In Psycho, Norman Bates is said to have murdered his mother and her lover after finding them in bed together. Freud identified the tendency of a person who has experienced a traumatic event to re-live the negative event over and over, in action, in memory, or in dreams. A key aspect of the theory is the urge to put oneself into situations where the traumatic experience is likely to recur. Some forms of sexual dysfunction are interpreted as examples of repetition compulsion for example, an individual spanked as a child may seek out masochistic sexual experiences The best known of Freuds theories about childhood sexuality is named from the mythological king Oedipus, who killed his father and married his mother. As Freud described the complex, a young boy is sexually attracted to his mother, and as a result desires to kill his father in order to possess the mother. This forbidden desire is then repressed, only to return later in neurotic form. In popular Freudianism, mothers are often seen as encouraging the Oedipal complex through possessive or flirtatious behavior toward sons. As Norman Bates tells Marion Crane, a boys best friend is his mother. (But also: A son is a poor substitute for a lover.). Freud believed the purpose of psychoanalysis is to recover these repressed memories so that the patient can deal with them in the conscious mind. In Freudianism, a successfully integrated personality is under control of the Ego. We see Norman engage in a discussion with Marion in the parlour where he reveals a desire to escape from mothers tyrannical grip, but cannot gain the will to do so. Norman fails to achieve the self-mastery which Freud claimed psychoanalysis may provide. At this stage Marion retires to her room and decides to return to her old life. In the parlour adjacent to Marions room we see Norman remove a painting to reveal a spy-hole. The audience is forced into Normans secret world as he watches her undress. Normal develops masculine and sexual feelings towards Marion. Bates alter ego of his mother is not happy about the prospect of an attractive young woman disrupting the love affair between mother and son. He even holds conversations with himself thinking hes speaking to his mother. While dressed as his mother, Bates with knife in hand murders Crane while she is taking a shower in one of the Bates motel rooms. During the shower scene the piercing violin strings play a large part in creating sheer terror during the horrific scene, screaming begins before Marions own shrieks. The murder during the shower scene destabilises the audience as the blade is pointed at her abdominal womb area, attacking the site of motherhood is perhaps a gesture to prevent her giving birth to men like himself see Figure 3a and 3b. From Freud we learn Normans id becomes the core of the psyche and determining force causing the mother half of Norman Bates to commit murder. Normans psyche represses this information causing the fear of reappearance. The compulsion to repeat is a manifestation of the power of the repressed (Freud, 1920), illustrating the strength of the influence of the repressed and the unconscious.ÂÂ   After the murder of Marion and Norman disposing of her in the swamp next to the house, the spectators turn to Norman to replace Marion as its main focus in its subjective role. Later on, when Sam and Lila search for evidence regarding Marions disapparance, Sam Loomis distracts Norman as Lila quietly walks up to the house to talk to Normans mother. She finds in the lower floor Normans mothers dead body which has been removed from its grave and preserved. At this point we realise Norman is two people. Norman is metamorphosised and revealed as his Mother when as he attempts to kill again his disguise is stripped away and ripped off. The Norman self completely dies, while his macabre Mother self is brought to life, shown by his mothers hysterically-laughing face, animated and resurrected by the light. Normans restricted personal growth this can be linked with the Oedipus complex. During the development of the Oedipus Complex the child develops a strong sense and powerful urges for sexual possession of the opposite sex parent. This urge gives rise to serious problems. The boy identifies with his father, and in doing so, internalises the fathers moral standards consequently the boy takes on the morals from his father, forming the superego. In Normans case, the absense of his father has resulted in an unresolved oedipus complex which results in a weak superego. Perhaps its this reason why he struggles with identity disorder as he houses his mothers superego in attempt to compensate for the one which he never developed as a result of his fathers absence. At the end of the film the psychiatrist explains: When reality came too close, when danger or desire threatened that illusion, he dressed up, even to a cheap wig he bought. Hed walk about the house, sit in her chair, speak in her voice. He was never all Norman, but he was often only Mother. Freud believed that traumatic events, usually from childhood, are repressed by the conscious mind. However, these destructive memories remain in the subconscious, where they are the source of neuroses and psychoses. The purpose of psychoanalysis is to recover these repressed memories so that the patient can deal with them in the conscious mind. The audience, although they had received an explanation for Normans actions, is left terrified and confused by the last scene of Norman and the manifestation of his split personality. Faced with this spectacle, Hitchcock forces the audience to examine their conscious self in relation to the events that they had just played a role in. Psycho creates a fear not necessarily from the brutality of the murders but from the subconscious identification with the films characters. To conclude, Hitchcock enforces the idea that all the basic emotions and sentiments derived from the film can be felt by anyone as the unending battle between good and evil exists in all aspects of life. The effective use of character parallels and the creation of the audiences subjective role in the plot enables Hitchcock to entice terror and convey a lingering sense of anxiety within the audience through a progressively intensifying theme. Freuds concept of the unconscious is so explicitly mirrored throughout the film. We have a seemingly normal woman whose balance is offset by a desire and which drives her to commit a financial crime. At the other end of the spectre we have again a man who most would think was harmless enough but due to his childhood and developmental restrictions has for other reasons allowed his unconscious to take full control of his conscious. According to Freud the essence of repression lies simply in the turning something away, and keeping it at a distance f or the conscious; Freud believed traumatic memories usually of childhood events are repressed as a defence mechanism which keeps the ego free of conflict and tension, however something can induce the momentary retrieval of a repressed memory and in the case of Norman Bates this triggered a psychotic in his mother psyche episode.

Essay --

FORTIS: GROWTH AT BREATHTAKING PACE "We want to be big," How big? "No clue how big†¦,"...just... big." 1 Shivinder Mohan Singh (2001) â€Å"The opportunity [in India] is large but we don’t want to be limited to being a healthcare player confined to a market†. â€Å"Compare a US$500 billion Asian healthcare market with a US$50 billion Indian market. I clearly see a lot more opportunity and a lot more growth happening in international markets.† Malvinder Mohan Singh (2011) â€Å"We have intensified our focus on India as we see strong demand for healthcare delivery services in the country over the next many decades† Malvinder Mohan Singh (2013) Fortis which began as a single hospital with 300 beds in Mohali in the year 2001 is a fast growing integrated service provider in Asia. The healthcare verticals of the company span diagnostics, primary care, day care specialty and hospitals, with an asset base in 7 countries, many of which represent the fastest-growing healthcare delivery markets in the world. The company operates its healthcare delivery network in Dubai, Hong Kong, India, Mauritius, Singapore, Sri Lanka, and Nepal with 76 hospitals, 12,000 beds, 600 primary care centers, 191 day care specialty centers, 230 diagnostic centers and a talent pool of over 23,000 people. Fortis is managed by erstwhile promoters of Ranbaxy Laboratories – Malvinder Mohan Singh (Non-Executive Chairman) and Shivinder Mohan Singh (Managing Director). The promoters have a strong background in the pharmaceutical industry and more than a decade of experience in the healthcare services industry. Shivinder Singh looks after the Indian operations as the Managing Director of Fortis Healthcare (India) Ltd. Malvinder Singh runs the Singapore-based Fortis Healthcare In... ... a fairly aggressive expansion before 2009, they are not relying on debt for expansion as before. The Mumbai project was financed with internal accruals. Wockhardt chose to build the Mumbai and Delhi hospitals one after the other and not simultaneously, so as not to put pressure on its cash flows. Wockhardt Hospitals is determined not to repeat its mistakes as it expands again. Industry leaders Fortis and Apollo Hospitals are far ahead of Wockhardt. But Wockhardt is not targeting scale, nor do they wish to be a pan-India player. The company plans to focus on Maharashtra and Gujarat, and Tier-II cities. The company’s current strategy is being a niche player which makes business sense. Having a regional focus has logistical benefits - it is easier to move doctors from one hospital to another in times of emergency. â€Æ' â€Æ' Appendix 5: Fortis stock price

Life’s Dispute

It is interesting to explore the work of art of Ernest Hemingway’s A Farewell to Arms. In the story, it gives the readers a sense of responsibility hand in hand with intense love for someone that the protagonist has to his beloved. The blend of one’s conviction and love are the focal elements in the author’s masterpiece.As the author shed light to the intriguing scenario of the story, at some point, the readers would have passionate longing and at the same time a huge responsibility to his craft. It is indeed in this story that the author uses the realities of life which truly give emphasis to the norm of the story.Furthermore, A Farewell to Arms involves a great representation of one’s ideals in life. On how the central character portrays his conviction all through out the story is the essential part of this paper. The elaboration of ideals as well as realities of life will be presented in this dissertation.In lieu of the story, Frederick Henry is the lea ding character. He’s a volunteer ambulance driver which has a huge responsibility in the realm that he is into but at the same time, at the back of his mind, he is thinking about the indifferent world. Accordingly, he does his work efficiently but along the way, he makes a gesture that he misses the point wherein the essentiality his work does not serve his persona anymore.In addition to the protagonist ideals in life, it was characterized in the story how he passionately fall in love with Catherine with whom he focuses his attention. The deep rooted feelings that he established towards Catherine truly leave a mark to his character and on the later part of the story, it was clearly shown how he stand with his love despite the challenges that comes their way.Catherine Barkley was said to be the one behind the character of Frederick Henry. She was once loose her fiancà ©. She met Frederick Henry in the hospital. They both got attracted with each other which lead them to have a relationship. Their affair was intensely depicted in the story which enlightens the very essence of A Farewell to Arms. Catherine’s character without a doubt had a huge impact to Frederick Henry’s character. She simply defines the perseverance of the central character by using their love as central element, â€Å"I want what you want.There is no any me any more just what you want† (Hemingway, p.106). The characteristic of Frederick Henry is not the serious type when it comes to relationship, â€Å"I did not love Catherine Barkley nor had any idea of loving her. This was a game, like bridge, in which you said things instead of playing cards. Like bridge you had to pretend you were playing for money or playing for some stakes. Nobody had mentioned what the stakes were† (Hemingway, p. 31). As Frederick Henry had an attachment to Catherine, his feelings transforms in a much deeper character of a man with conviction to his girl.On the later part of the story when Catherine had difficulty in her pregnancy and to the extent that she looses her life with their baby, it expounds the strength in the leading role’s character as he stand firm and with open arms accept the challenges of life. Truly, the world is indifferent in the eyes of Frederick Henry but because of Catherine’s contributions to his life, he became strong with a grip to love the life that he has.Rinaldi, a physician and a friend to Frederick Henry was one of the contributing characters in the story. Through this man, it draws a picture of concentrated aim for the best. He focuses his attention to two things – war and country. This man talks about medal of bravery and development in ones craft. Indeed, it gives the leading character to have a perception as regards to work as well as to excel in his field.Passini, another effective character in A Farewell to Arms delineates the intention of the story. Considering his character, his views in life was to quit with what he is doing.He wanted to end the war just like that because he does not appreciate anymore the imperative task he is portraying, â€Å"One side must stop fighting. Why don't we stop fighting† (Hemingway, p.51). Unfortunately, he died in the event of the story, and this circumstance serves an eye opener to the protagonist that when you relinquish the struggle, you almost surrender yourself.

Prevalence of Escherichia Coli on Money

PREVALENCE OF ESCHERICHIA COLI ON PHILIPPINE PESO BILL WITHIN THE VICINITY OF ILOILO CITY 2012-2013 A Research Paper Presented to The Faculty College of Medical Laboratory Science Department Central Philippine University Iloilo City In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Research 1 JUSTINE GRACE G. JIMENEA ISAAC JAMES T. LEDESMA MAJA HANNAH LOU L. LOJA ROBERTO R. MANALO JR. JIRAH L. PEDROSA MARCH 2013 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Background of the Study A classic characteristic of human parasitic and bacterial agents is the evolution of routes for transmission pathogens to susceptible hosts.The environment plays a critical role in transmission to humans, with many environmental materials serving as vehicles. Microbial contaminants may be transmitted directly, through hand-to-hand contact, or indirectly, via food or other inanimate objects like fomites. (Rote, et al. , 2010) According to Umeh, et al (2007), Contamination of objects by pathogenic microorganism is much a public hea lth concern as contaminated materials can be sources of transmitting pathogens. Items that pass from hand to hand are likely to be contaminated with disease causing microorganisms especially if handled with unclean hands or kept in dirty surroundings.Ahmed, et al (2010) pointed out that paper currency is widely exchanged for goods and services in most countries worldwide. Paper currencies are widely used and each currency is exchanged many times during the time it circulates. If some of these paper money are contaminated with pathogenic bacteria, there is a potential to spread these microorganism. Pope, et al (2002) mentioned, since bacteria, have been shown to spread from person to person via contact with fomites paper money, therefore, presents a particular risk of public health.Paper currency is commonly and routinely passed among individuals. Thus bacteria could be spread on the surface of paper currency. Paper currency, as asserted by Oyero, et al (2007) can be contaminated by droplets during coughing, sneezing, touching with previously contaminated hands or other materials and placement on dirty surface. Paper currency is commonly handled by various categories of people during transaction. The possibility that paper currency might act as environmental vehicles for the transmission of potential pathogenic microorganisms was suggested in 1970s.Various pathogens related with throat infection, pneumonia, tonsillitis, peptic ulcers, urino-genital tract infection, gastroenteritis and lung abscess had been reported. (Pope, et al. , 2002) The money which may get contaminated during production, storage, after production and during use are always in circulation. Numerous research on currency in several countries indicated bacterial contamination. A study in Bangladesh reported thatEscherichia coli (58%),Klebsiella(50%), Staphylococcus aureus(25%), Salmonella (15%), Bacillus (9%), Pseudomonas (7%) and Vibrio cholera (5%) were recovered from Bangladesh Paper Currenc y Notes (Taka). Ahmed, et al,. 2010) In another study carried out in Nigeria, the bacteria isolated E. coli (80%), Aerobacter (59%), Salmonella (40. 9%), yeast cells (36. 4%), Streptococcus fecalis(31. 8%), Staphylococcus aureus( 27. 3%) and the coagulase negative staphylococci (18. 2%). (Umeh, et al. , 2007) A similar study was also conducted in Nepal and reported thatStaphylococcusaureus, S. Epidermidis, Streptococcus pyogenes, Klebsiella pneumonia, Salmonella choleraesius, E. coli, Enterobacteraerogenesand cloaceaewere isolated from paper money of Nepal. (Lamichhane, et al. 2009) In another study in India, 100% of the currency notes of Indian upee were contaminated with bacteria. Mainly three species including E. coli, Proteus spp. And Staphylococcus aureuswere isolated. (Bhat, et al. , 2010) In another study in India, currency samples of different denominations from different occupational groups were evaluated for isolation of microbial contaminants and Staphylococcus aureu, E. coli, Bacillus spp. , Klebsiella spp. , Proteus mirablisand fungus like Aspergillusnigerand Fusariumwere isolated from these paper currency notes. (Rote, et al. 2010) Although, a lot of studies on the microbiological status of paper currency have been carried out elsewhere, data on the microbial contamination of the Peso (Philippine currency) is scanty. In order to know the prevalence of Escherichia coli on Philippine Peso bill within the vicinity of Iloilo City in the year 2012-2013, this study is to be conducted. General Objectives What is the prevalence rate of E. coli contamination on the Philippine peso bill of Public Utility Jeepney (PUJ)? Specific Objectives 1. ) What is the prevalence rate of E. coli contamination on the 20 peso bill? . ) What is the prevalence rate of E. coli contamination on the 50 peso bill? 3. ) What is the prevalence rate of E. coli contamination on the 100 peso bill? Research Paradigm Independent variableDependent variable Location:Public Utility Jeepn ey (PUJ)Value:20 PHP50 PHP100 PHP| Prevalence rate of Escherichia coli contamination| Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of the Study Definition of Terms To provide clarity and understanding, the following terms were defined conceptually and operationally. Bacteria- are minute, unicellular organisms that reproduce by binary fission.They are considered prokaryotes due to the absence of nuclear membrane. They possess both DNA and RNA. They sensitive to penicillins, tetracycline and chloramphenicol. (Moraleta, Review of Microbiology) In the study, the bacteria is the E. coli to be identified. Escherichia coli- or E. coli is a bacterium that is commonly found in the gut of humans and other warm-blooded animals. While most strains are harmless, some can cause severe foodborne disease. E. coli  infection is usually transmitted through consumption of contaminated water or food, such as undercooked meat products and raw milk.Symptoms of disease include abdominal cramps and diarrhoea, which may b e bloody. Fever and vomiting may also occur. Most patients recover within 10 days, although in a few cases the disease may become life-threatening. (WHO, 2012) As used in this study,E. coli is the subject of the study and it is isolated in the surfaces different peso bill. Contamination-The act or process of  contaminating; pollution; defilement; taint; also, that which contaminates. (http://www. merriam-webster. com/) In this study, contamination refers how high or low E. oli bacteria level is found on the surface of the peso bill. Denomination-a value or size of a series of values or sizes. (http://www. merriam-webster. com/) As used in thisstudy, 20, 50, 100 are used as denomination. Paper bill- (often known as a  bill,  paper money  or simply a  note) is a type ofnegotiable instrument  known as a  promissory note, made by a  bank, payable to the bearer on demand. (http://en. wikipedia. org) In this study, paper bill was tested for the presence or absence of E. co li. Philippine peso- is the currency of the  Philippines.The peso is usually denoted by the symbol â€Å"? â€Å". Other ways of writing the Philippine peso sign are â€Å"PHP†, â€Å"PhP†, â€Å"Php†, and/or â€Å"P†. (http://www. wikipedia. org/) As used in this study, Philippine peso paper bill was tested for the presence of E. coli. Public Utility Jeepney (PUJ)- are the most popular means of  public transportation  in the Philippines. (http://www. wikipedia. org/) In this study, this is the location of the Philippine peso billwhere the E. coli is to be isolated. Significance of the Study The result of the study will benefit the following:Department of Health. May provide information on how to properly handle and care for money to prevent the risk of Escherichia coli contamination from hand-to-hand communication. The Medical Researchers. They may use this study as reference for future studies especially in the prevention of the deadly disease c aused by Escherichia coli on the circulating money. Commercial Banks. They may have an idea that Escherichia coli can inhabit the paper bill and cause such disease. Hence, they will come up bacteria-free money. Jeepney Drivers.May help them in protecting their selves from being the courier of contaminated money from one person to another. The public. The result will provide information and awareness about money contaminated by Escherichia coli circulates, and find ways in preventing disease and reduce mortality. Future researcher. The result of the study may also be used by other future researcher as a reference or basis for future researcher or investigation. Scope and Limitation of the Study This study aims to determine the prevalence of Escherichia coli contamination on Philippine peso bill within the vicinity of Iloilo City.A total of 45 paper currency of denominations, fifteen paper currencies of each: 20 PhP, 50 PhP and 100 PhP in circulation were randomly collected in 15 jeep neys at different times. Coins were excluded from the study. Paper currencies were gathered from Jaro-CPU Public Utility Jeepney (PUJ) from CPU to Iloilo City route and vice versa. This study is conducted during the month of March until May in the year 2013. Persons handling the bill were asked to deposit them in sterile polyethylene bags, sealed and taken to the Medical Laboratory Science Research Laboratory of Central Philippine University, for analysis. CHAPTER 2REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES This chapter deals with the related literature and studies relevant to the study of Escherichia coli contamination on paper money bills. Money in the form of notes or coins is handled by everyone, and ‘dirty' money (money contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms) is always in circulation. Contamination may occur during production, during storage after production, and during use. Microorganisms on the skin can be transferred from cashiers, salespeople and the general public to the currency notes that they handle. Contamination from the anal region, wounds, nasal secretions and aerosols enerated by sneezing and coughing are potential sources of transfer of microorganisms to currency notes during handling. Staphylococcus epidermidis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa  and  Klebsiellaaerogenes  have been reported to survive well on the skin,and are known to be transferred from fabrics to hand as well as from hand to fabrics. (Tswana, 2000) Items that are passed from hand to hand are likely to be contaminated with disease-causing bacteria particularly if carried with unclear hands, or kept in a dirty environment. Similarly, paper currency is widely exchanged for goods and services in countries worldwide.Currency contamination with pathogenic bacteria is of much public health concern as contaminated materials can be sources of serious pathogens. Paper currency, therefore presents a particular risk to public health, since they go in circulation and contaminate t he hands of others transmitting pathogenic organisms in the process. (Uneke&Ogbu, 2007) Pathogenic bacteria that may survive on the currency banknotes may serve as a potential source of enteropathogens causing food poisoning because food vendors handle and serve food and at the same time handle currency banknotes as they sell. Cardoenet al. , 2009; Lamichhaneet al. , 2009) The incidence of food poisoning is on the increase worldwide, although it is estimated that only 10% of cases are reported – just the tip of the iceberg. Money bill play a major role in transmission of pathogenic bacteria. Some mathematical models have been developed to help understand the movements of currency and how this might contribute to the global spread of disease. One of the main sources of pathogenic or food-poisoning bacteria is people. People commonly carry these bacteria in their nose, mouth, wounds and intestines, and on their skin.There are several reports of the occurrence of microorganisms, in particular bacteria, on cash – banknotes and coins. A study in the US showed that only 6% of banknotes tested were free from microbial contamination. Dirty money Modern banknotes are made from a special blend of 75% cotton and 25% linen with small segments of fibre, so ‘paper’ money is something of a misnomer. The ‘paper’ is referred to as the substrate during the manufacturing process; this is an appropriate name as bacteria require a substrate for growth.The cotton/linen/fibre combinations of banknotes produce a strong bond and do not pull apart, unlike the fibres of ordinary paper. The average life span of a low denomination paper banknote is about 24 months. In the early 1980s, an American Bank developed polyethylene fibres for use as currency and they are still in use in some Central American countries. Non-fibrous, non-porous, polymer banknotes, developed by the Reserve Bank of Australia, were first issued as currency in 1988. The banknotes were made from biaxially oriented polypropylene that made them more durable, with security features that rendered them difficult to counterfeit. Aidoo, 2011) Various routes are known that lead to the contamination of paper bill. Handling of it results in the transfer of bacteria from money onto hands or from hands onto money. Individuals who cough or sneeze into their hands can easily transfer bacteria onto currency when they handle it. Viruses may also be transmitted when infected people touch surfaces, such as banknotes, that are then touched by others. In the hospitality and catering industry, it is unacceptable for staff to use one hand to handle food and the other to handle money.Food, either cooked or uncooked, may contain bacteria which can be transferred either directly or indirectly through a medium such as a work surface onto currency. This may occur particularly with street food, mobile food vendors and in retail outlets at the counter. Obviously, the transfer of pathoge nic bacteria to food that is ready to be eaten and that requires no further heat treatment could have serious consequences. Should money be handled between hand washing and food handling, then it is equally important to repeat the process of hand washing before handling high-risk food.Wallets, purses, cash registers and other ‘closed’ environments are conducive for microbial growth because they create warm and moist conditions. Transfer of micro-organisms from one banknote to another in such closed environments may also be common. (Aidoo, 2011) Money on which pathogenic microorganisms might survive represents an often overlooked reservoir for enteric disease (Michaels, 2002). In most parts of the developed world, there is a popular belief that the simultaneous handling of food and money contributes to the incidence of food-related public health incidents (Food Science Australia [FSA], 2000).It goes without saying that bacteria are everywhere in the environment and most of these microbes are harmless to humans. Should germs on money worry us? Surprisingly, studies of bacteria on money are scarce. In 1972 a study in the Journal of the American Medical Association studied bacteria from 200 coins and bills and found harmful germs like fecal bacteria and Staphylococcus aureus on 13 percent of coins and 42 percent of notes. The study concluded: â€Å"Money is truly dirty. † (http://christophreilly. hubpages. com/) Micro-organisms commonly associated with banknotes include Staphylococcus aureus, ? haemolytic Streptococcus, Enterobacter spp. , Acinetobacter spp. , Pseudomonas spp. , Bacillusspp. , Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp. , viruses, yeasts and moulds. Some of these bacteria are pathogenic, while others may cause opportunistic infections. The predominant, recurrent pathogenic bacteria found on banknotes are S. aureus, Bacillus spp. and Escherichia spp. Many members of the Enterobacteriaceae are found in the gut of animals and humans, and th eir presence in food or on inanimate objects and surfaces is a good indicator of poor hygiene.Members of the genera Enterobacter, Escherichia and Klebsiella isolated from banknotes may not themselves cause serious illness; however, their isolation from money may indicate the presence of other pathogenic organisms. Escherichia coliis an important member of the faecal coliform group and its presence on banknotes is of public health concern, especially as some strains can of course cause serious illness. Species of the Gram-negative genus Pseudomonas, which can cause serious opportunistic infections, have also been isolated from banknotes.S. aureus is the predominant bacterium present on the surface of banknotes and it is also a common cause of food poisoning. This organism is indicative of poor standards of hygiene particularly during food handling and/or preparation. Many people in the adult population carry S. aureus on their skin, in their nasal cavity, and in septic cuts, boils an d spots. Coagulase-positive S. aureus is readily isolated from banknotes and the toxins it produces may cause toxic shock syndrome. It has also been implicated in pneumonia.Streptococci are part of the normal microflora in the mouth, skin, intestine and upper respiratory tract of humans. Although many streptococcal species are non-pathogenic, some have been implicated in meningitis and pneumonia. Bacillus spp. are spore-formers and can withstand harsh, adverse conditions, such as drying. Some species, for example Bacillus cereus, cause two types of food poisoning: diarrhoeal (heat-labile toxin) and emetic (heat-stable toxin). (Aidoo, 2011) The surface of ‘paper’ banknotes is not smooth, but irregular, and can harbour many different types of microorganisms.The two main factors that determine the occurrence of bacteria on currency are (i) the material that the banknotes are made from and (ii) the age of the banknote. Bacteria have enormous capabilities to allow them to su rvive in adverse conditions. Two of the most important strategies for survival are their ability to adhere to surfaces and the ability to form biofilms (multicellular aggregates). Members of some genera, such as Bacillus, may form spores and can survive attached to banknotes for many years. Formation of a biofilm or a spore is controlled by genetic activity of the bacterium.Bacterial cells on banknotes are measured by the number of colony-forming units (c. f. u. ) per cm2 of banknote. A banknote may contain up to 106c. f. u. cm–2, whilst a coin may have up to 103c. f. u. cm–2. Studies have shown that polymer-based banknotes often have a relatively low bacterial count compared with the cotton-based ‘paper’ banknotes. This may be due to various physicochemical parameters of polymers. For example, a negatively charged and hydrophilic synthetic polymer would adversely affect bacterial attachment. (Vriesekoop et. al. , 2010) Escherichia coli, also known as E. o li is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium that is commonly found in the lower intestine of warm-blooded organisms (endotherms). Most E. coli strains are harmless, but some types can cause serious food poisoning in humans, and are occasionally responsible for food contamination. (CDC National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, 2012) The harmless strains are part of the normal flora of the gut, and can benefit their hosts by producing vitamin K2, and by preventing the establishment of pathogenic bacteria within the intestine. (Hudault et al. , 2001).Fecal–oral transmission is the major route through which pathogenic strains of the bacterium cause disease. Cells are able to survive outside the body for a limited amount of time, which makes them ideal indicator organisms to test environmental samples for fecal contamination. There is, however, a growing body of research that has examined environmentally persistent E. coli which can survive for extended period s outside of the host. (Ishii &Sadowsky, 2008) Escherichia coli (or E. coli) is the most prevalent infecting organism in the family of gram-negative bacteria known as enterobacteriaceae.E. coli is often referred to as the best or most-studied free-living organism. More than 700 serotypes of E. coli have been identified. The â€Å"O† and â€Å"H† antigens on the bacteria and their flagella distinguish the different serotypes. Indeed, some E. coli are beneficial, while some cause infections other than gastrointestinal infections, such as urinary tract infections. The E. coli that are responsible for the numerous reports of contaminated foods and beverages are those that produce Shiga toxin, so called because the toxin is virtually identical to that produced by Shigelladysenteria type 1. Eisenstein et al, 2000) Strains of E. coli that causes diarrhea in man †¢ Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) – causes diarrhea, but the molecular mechanisms of colonization and a etiology are different. EPEC lack fimbriae, ST and LT toxins, but they use an adhesin known as intimin to bind host intestinal cells. This virotype has an array of virulence factors that are similar to those found in Shigella, and may possess a shiga toxin. Adherence to the intestinal mucosa causes a rearrangement of actin in the host cell, causing significant deformation. EPEC cells are moderately invasive (i. . they enter host cells) and elicit an inflammatory response. A change in intestinal cell ultrastructure due to â€Å"attachment and effacement† is likely the prime cause of diarrhea in those afflicted with EPEC. (University of Wisconsin–Madison Department of Bacteriology, 2007) †¢ Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) – Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, or ETEC, is the name given to a group of E. coli that produce special toxins which stimulate the lining of the intestines causing them to secrete excessive fluid, thus producing diarrhea. (cdc. gov, 2004) à ¢â‚¬ ¢ Enteroinvasive E. oli (EIEC) – this infection causes a syndrome that is identical to Shigellosis, with profuse diarrhea and high fever. EIEC are highly invasive, and they utilize adhesin proteins to bind to and enter intestinal cells. They produce no toxins, but severely damage the intestinal wall through mechanical cell destruction. ( Lan et al, 2004). †¢ Enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC) – is a subgroup of diarrhoeagenic E. coli (DEC) that during the past decade has received increasing attention as a cause of watery diarrhea, which is often persistent. EAEC have been isolated from children and adults worldwide.As well as sporadic cases, outbreaks of EAEC-caused diarrhea have been described. (sgmjournals. org, 2003) †¢ Diffusely adherent E. coli (DAEC) – may cause disease in immunologically naive or malnourished children. Discrepancies among epidemiological studies could be explained by age-dependent susceptibility to diarrhea or by the use of a n inappropriate detection method such as DNA probing. The current prospective case-control study was done to determine the role of DAEC strains as a cause of acute diarrhea in northeastern Brazil, where childhood diarrhea is endemic. ( M. M. Levine. 1990) †¢ Shiga toxin-producing E. oli (STEC) – Some strains of E. coli produce a toxin called Shiga toxin that causes diarrhea and can lead to severe illness. These Shiga toxin-producing E. coli are sometimes called STEC (pronounced â€Å"S-TECK). STEC can be spread from cattle and other animals to people through raw or undercooked meat, unpasteurized milk, or through contact with an infected animal. People can also get infected by consuming contaminated water, raw produce or unpasteurized juice or cider. Foods can become contaminated with bacteria from manure in the field or from raw beef or raw beef juices in the kitchen.People with STEC who do not wash hands well after a bowel movement can spread it to others. (kingcounty . gov, 2005) The genera Escherichia and Salmonella diverged around 102 million years ago, which coincides with the divergence of their hosts: the former being found in mammals and the latter in birds and reptiles. This was followed by a split of the escherichian ancestor into five species (E. albertii, E. coli, E. fergusonii, E. hermannii and E. vulneris. ) The last E. coli ancestor split between 20 and 30 million years ago. ( Lecointre et al. 2007) In 1885, a German pediatrician, Theodor Escherich, first discovered this species isolated from the feces of newborns and called it Bacterium coli commune due to the fact it is found in the colon and early classifications of Prokaryotes placed these in a handful of genera based on their shape and motility (at that time Ernst Haeckel's classification of Bacteria in the kingdom Monera was in place). Bacterium coli was the type species of the now invalid genus Bacterium when it was revealed that the former type species (â€Å"Bacterium tril oculare†) was missing.Following a revision of Bacteria it was reclassified as Bacillus coli by Migula in 1895 and later reclassified in the newly created genus Escherichia, named after its original discoverer. ( Castellani and Chalmers, 2009) The genus belongs in a group of bacteria informally known as â€Å"coliforms†, and is a member of the Enterobacteriaceae family (â€Å"the enterics†) of the Gammaproteobacteria. (Garrity, 2005) Escherichia coli encompass an enormous population of bacteria that exhibit a very high degree of both genetic and phenotypic diversity. Genome sequencing of a large number of isolates of E. oli and related bacteria shows that a taxonomic reclassification would be desirable. However, this has not been done, largely due to its medical importance and E. coli remains one of the most diverse bacterial species: only 20% of the genome is common to all strains. (Lukjancenko et. al. , 2010) In fact, from the evolutionary point of view, the mem bers of genus Shigella (S. dysenteriae, S. flexneri, S. boydii, S. sonnei) should be classified as E. coli strains, a phenomenon termed taxa in disguise. Similarly, other strains of E. coli (e. g. he K-12 strain commonly used in recombinant DNA work) are sufficiently different that they would merit reclassification. (Lan; Reeves, 2002) A strain is a sub-group within the species that has unique characteristics that distinguish it from other strains. These differences are often detectable only at the molecular level; however, they may result in changes to the physiology or lifecycle of the bacterium. For example, a strain may gain pathogenic capacity, the ability to use a unique carbon source, the ability to take upon a particularecological niche or the ability to resist antimicrobial agents. Different strains of E. oli are often host-specific, making it possible to determine the source of fecal contamination in environmental samples. For example, knowing which E. coli strains are pre sent in a water sample allows researchers to make assumptions about whether the contamination originated from a human, another mammal or a bird. (Feng et. al. , 2002) The bacteria normally adhere to the mucus or the epithelium on the wall of the intestines, and a single strain can last for months or years. E. coli is one of the most studied and best understood organism, but the organism's role and how it colonizes isn't very well understood.Freter's Nutrient-Niche theory best describes E. coli's role: The ecological functions of E. coli depend on the nutrient availability within the intestines of the host organism. Since there are so many different nutrients that can be found within the intestines, it is said that they contain a balanced ecosystem because there are so many different nutrient-defined functions where the E. coli colonize. This is dependent on the preferred nutrient for that particular population occupying the niche. E. coli can also be found outside of the body in fae cally-contaminated environments such as water or mud. (bioweb. wlax. edu, 2008) The optimal growth of E. coli occurs at 37 degrees Celsius but some laboratory strains can multiply at temperatures of up to 49 degrees C. Growth can be driven by aerobic or anaerobic respiration. (answers. ask. com, 2010) As E. coli is part of the common micro? ora in the large intestine, it is accustomed to a pH of 7-8. As glucose is absorbed in the small intestine, the E. coli would be used to low concentrations. However, as glucose is its energy source, if excess glucose were available for consumption, it would be expected that the E. coli would utilise it and grow at a faster rate.Salt (NaCl) is absorbed in the colon, so the amount of salt that the E. coli is exposed to depends on how much salt is consumed by the host organism. However, because of the mechanism of osmosis, extremely high levels as well as complete absence of salt could be lethal to E. coli bacteria. (APUA, 2007 How Antibiotics Work – the Mechanism of Action , Alliance for the Prudent Use of Antibiotics,) You get an E. coli infection by coming into contact with the feces of humans or animals. This can happen when you drink water or eat food that has been contaminated by feces. Healthwise, 2011) E. coli infection can cause human illness when E. coli is ingested through various modes of transmission, including through food and water sources, animal-to-human contact, and person-to-person contact. (Clark, 2012) And according to the (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) CDC, the transmission of these bacteria to humans may occur in the following manner: †¢Meat, such as beef from cows, may become contaminated when organisms are accidently mixed in with beef, especially when it is ground. Meat contaminated with E. coli does not smell and looks normal.It is important to thoroughly cook the beef. †¢Infection may occur after swimming in or drinking water that has been contaminated with E. coli. â € ¢Person-to-person contact in families and in child-care and other institutional-care centers are also places where the transmission of the bacteria can occur. However, the CDC also indicates the way E. coli is transmitted may change over time. (medicalcenter. osu. edu, 2006) To help avoid food poisoning and prevent infection, handle food safely. Cook meat well, wash fruits and vegetables before eating or cooking them, and avoid unpasteurized milk and juices.You can also get the infection by swallowing water in a swimming pool contaminated with human waste. (nlm. nih. gov, 2012) Pathogenic Escherichia coli, or E. coli, is believed to mostly live in the intestines of cattle. Certain serotypes of E. coli have also been found in the intestines of chickens, sheep, and pigs. (Clark, 2012) E. coli in food E. coli can get into meat during processing. If the infected meat is not cooked to 160 °F (71 °C), the bacteria can survive and infect you when you eat the meat. This is the most common way people become infected with E. coli.Any food that has been in contact with raw meat can also become infected. Other foods that can be infected with E. coli include: Raw milk or dairy products. Bacteria can spread from a cow's udders to its milk. Check the labels on dairy products to make sure they contain the word â€Å"pasteurized. † This means the food has been heated to destroy bacteria. Raw fruits and vegetables, such as lettuce, alfalfa sprouts, or unpasteurized apple cider or other unpasteurized juices that have come in contact with infected animal feces. E. coli in water Human or animal feces infected with E. oli sometimes get into lakes, pools, and water supplies. People can become infected when a contaminated city or town water supply has not been properly treated with chlorine or when people accidentally swallow contaminated water while swimming in a lake, pool, or irrigation canal. E. coli from person-to-person contact The bacteria can also spread from o ne person to another, usually when an infected person does not wash his or her hands well after a bowel movement. E. coli can spread from an infected person's hands to other people or to objects. Person-to-person transmission of E. oli occurs through a fecal-oral route, and is particularly common among infants and young children due to their unrefined hygienic practices. Person-to-person transmission of E. coli has also been known to occur between infected individuals and their caregivers, and between infected handlers of certain objects. (WebMD, 2010) In a study entitled â€Å"Microbial Contamination in 20-Peso Banknotes in Monterrey, Mexico†, the banknotes came from various sources, including banks, toll booths, convenience stores, restaurants, cafeterias, and yogurt stores, among others.Samples were randomly obtained and banknotes were placed in a sterile polyethylene bag. The bag was sealed and the sample was taken to the laboratory. All currency banknotes were in good ph ysical condition. Each banknote was placed in 5-mL sterile saline for 24 hours. A sterile, cotton-tipped swab was briefly introduced in the saline and the swab was seeded with a portion of the saline homogenized in blood agar plates and incubated for 48 hours at 37 °C in aerobic conditions. Plates were then examined for bacterial growth and the colonies underwent Gram stain.Gram-negative colonies were grown on Eosin methylene blue agar plates and identified with the Crystal Identification System (Becton Dickinson). Gram-positive cocci were grown on azide agar plates and identified by conventional biochemical tests. Identification of yeasts was performed with CHROMagar Candida (Becton Dickinson). Of the 70 currency banknotes on which bacteriological analysis was conducted, 48 (69%) were found to be contaminated with several microbial species (Table 1).Sixteen species isolates were obtained from the banknotes: 14 bacterial species (four [23%] Gram positive and 10 [63%] Gram negative ) and two (13%) yeast species. The most prevalent species observed was Candida kruseii (19 banknotes, 27%) followed by Burkholderiacepacia (nine banknotes, 13%). Of the 70 banknotes included, 22 (31%) showed no growth. Four bills (5. 7%) yielded bacteria considered pathogenic to healthy hosts and the other 44 contaminated bills (63%) yielded bacteria considered potentially pathogenic to hospitalized or immunocompromised hosts.Additionally, 11 bills showed more than one microbial species. Pope and co-authors analyzed 68 $1 bills collected from a school and a grocery store and found that five (7%) were contaminated with pathogenic bacteria, 59 (87%) were contaminated with opportunistic pathogens, and just four (6%) were free of bacteria (Pope et al. , 2002). Unlike the study by Pope and co-authors, in our study 31% of the banknotes were negative. Our results are similar to a previous publication (Abrams; Waterman, 1972), in which 70% of banknotes were contaminated with bacteria.Of the se banknotes, 60% contained pathogens, including S. aureus, E. coli, and P. aeruginosa. Medical personnel seem to play an important role in contamination of paper currency, since it has been reported that 13% of coins and 42% of currency collected from laboratory personnel were contaminated with S. aureus, E. coli, Klebsiella sp. , and Proteus mirabilis (Abrams; Waterman, 1972). Additionally, the culture of 100 banknotes and 102 coins collected from medical personnel showed that 3% of coins and 11% of banknotes were contaminated with opportunistic pathogens (KhinNwe et al. 1989). In our study, we did not include banknotes collected in any hospital, but banknotes collected near hospital facilities were contaminated with opportunistic pathogens such as B. cepacia and A. baumannii. Uneke and Ogbu assessed the potential of Nigerian currency notes to act as environmental vehicles for the transmission of pathogenic parasites and bacteria. Currency notes obtained from four major cities in Nigeria were evaluated according to standard techniques. Fifty-four (21. 6 percent [95 percent CI: 16. 50-26. 0]) of the first batch of 250 notes, which underwent parasitological analysis, were contaminated with enteric parasites; 133 (53. 2 percent [95 percent CI: 47. 02-59. 39]) of the second batch of 250 notes, which underwent bacteriological analysis, were found to be contaminated with bacteria. Parasites that were isolated from the notes included Ascarislumbricoides (8. 0 percent), Enterobiusvermicularis (6. 8 percent), Trichuristrichiura (2. 8 percent), and Taenia species (4. 0 percent). Bacteria that were isolated were Streptococcus species (21. percent), Staphylococcus species (12. 8 percent), Escherichia coli (13. 2 percent), and Bacillus species (5. 6 percent). Among dirty/mutilated currency notes, parasite contamination and bacterial contamination were both significantly (p ; . 05) more pervasive (30. 6 percent and 73. 8 percent, respectively) than they were among clean a nd mint currency notes. Lower-denomination notes were more likely to be contaminated than were higher-denomination notes, although the difference was not statistically significant (p ; . 05).Parasite contamination and bacteria contamination were both most frequent in notes obtained from butchers and beggars. These results suggest that currency notes may be contaminated, especially with bacteria and enteric parasites, and may serve as sources of infection. The possibility that currency notes might act as environmental vehicles for the transmission of potential pathogenic microorganisms was suggested in the 1970s (Abrams; Waterman, 1972). Paper currency is widely exchanged for goods and services in countries worldwide.It is used for every type of commerce, from buying milk at a local store to trafficking in sex and drugs. All this trade is hard on currency, with lower-denomination notes receiving the most handling because they are exchanged many times (Gadsby, 1998). Although paper cu rrency is made to take abuse (up to 4,000 folds in each direction) in most parts of the world, including in Nigeria (where paper currency is a rugged mix of 75 percent cotton and 25 percentlinen), it lasts less than a few years in circulation (Gadsby, 1998).The average U. S. dollar, for instance-like most currency notes worldwide-lasts a mere 18 months (Gadsby). Paper currency also provides a large surface area as a breeding ground for pathogens (Podhajny, 2004). Oddly, publications regarding the degree to which paper money is contaminated with bacteria are few and far between, as the authors found when they conducted a Medline search in December 2005 (Abrams; Waterman, 1972; El-Dars; Hassan, 2005; Goktas;Oktay, 1992; Jiang ; Doyle, 1999; Khin et al. 1989; Michaels, 2002; Pope et al. , 2002; Singh et al. , 2002; Xu et al. , 2005). Furthermore, the search found no documented study of the parasitological status of currency notes (as of December 2005). Scientific information on the con tamination of money by microbial agents is also lacking in most developing countries in sub-Saharan Africa, including Nigeria. This dearth of information may have contributed to the absence of public health policies or legislation on currency usage, handling, and circulation in many parts of Africa.Although the studies done in the United States and Australia have had no major impact on policies or legislation on currency handling and circulation in those countries, they have fostered a higher level of public awareness about the potential for currency contamination by microorganisms (Dow Jones News, 1998; FSA, 2000; Michaels; Jiang ; Doyle; Pope et al. ). In the United States, a whole division of the Department of Treasury deals with what is termed â€Å"mutilated currency,† and the department Web site boasts many examples of beleaguered, burned, buried, water-damaged money (Siddique, 2003).Isolation of various bacterial contaminants from the currency notes was performed via s tandard techniques described previously (Gilchrist, 1993; Singh et al. , 2002). Briefly, a sterile, cotton-tipped swab moistened with sterile physiological saline was used to swab both sides of the currency note. The swabs were directly inoculated on blood agar and MacConkey agar. The pairs of inoculated media were incubated aerobically at 35-37 °C for 24 hours and then examined for bacterial growth according to standard protocol described previously (Cheesbrough, 2000).The authors isolated bacteria by assessing colony characteristics and Gram reaction, and by conducting catalase and coagulase tests; hemolysis, sugar fermentation, and other biochemical tests, including tests for indole production, citrate utilization, and urase activity; triple sugar iron (TSI) agar tests (for glucose, sucrose, and lactose fermentation); gas and hydrogen sulfide production tests; and oxidase tests, according to protocols described previously (Cheesbrough). Bacteria were identified but were not qua ntified.Microbial contaminants can be transmitted directly by hand-to-hand contact or indirectly via food or inanimate objects like banknotes and doorknobs or other objects that come into contact with multiple human hands. Banknotes may be contaminated during storage and exchange, with lower-denomination banknotes receiving the most handling and therefore more contamination (Abrams; Waterman, 1972). In general, a greater number of bacteria have been reported on banknotes than on coins. Banknotes are an excellent transport medium for different types of microorganisms because they are commonly passed among individuals.Thus, handling money may be a route for transmission of infections (Xu et al. , 2005). We analyzed a sample of 70 20peso bills to isolate and identify bacteria or yeast that may be present on the surface of these banknotes. A recent study that included 1,280 banknotes from 10 countries, including Mexico, reported that pathogens could only be isolated after enrichment and their mere presence did not appear to be alarming (Vriesekoop et al. , 2010). The authors discussed that the presence of bacteria on banknotes is influenced by the material used for the banknotes (polymer based vs. otton based) and the age of the banknotes. They stated that the average number of bacteria encountered on the polymer banknotes was approximately 25% of that found on cotton-based banknotes (Vriesekoop et al. , 2010). That study showed a lower percentage of contamination in Mexican banknotes in comparison to banknotes from China, the U. S. , the UK, and the Netherlands, among others. We analyzed only polymer-based banknotes in good condition, but the presence of contamination was detected in most banknotes analyzed without any enrichment procedure.In that study, the only contaminations detected in Mexican banknotes were E. coli, S. aureus, and a low percentage of Bacillus cereus, which were interpreted as an indicator of poor hygiene, background microorganism, and the ab ility of spore-forming bacteria to persist on banknotes, respectively. In our study, we detected S. aureus and Bacillus spp. but we did not detect E. coli. It is important to point out that the 10-country study included currencies obtained only from food outlets and for this reason the results from that study and ours cannot strictly be compared. Source: Microbial Contamination in 20-Peso Banknotes in Monterrey, Mexico Rocha-Gamez, Judith; Tejeda-Villarreal, Paula Nelly, QCB; Macias-Cardenas, Patricia; Canizales-Oviedo, Jorge; Garza-Gonzalez, Elvira; et al. Journal of Environmental Health 75. 2 (Sep 2012): 20-3. ) In another study, entitled â€Å"Potential for Parasite and Bacterial Transmission by Paper Currency in Nigeria†, Bacteria that were isolated were Streptococcus species (21. 6 percent), Staphylococcus species (12. 8 percent), Escherichia coli (13. 2 percent), and Bacillus species (5. 6 percent).Among dirty/mutilated currency notes, parasite contamination and bacteri al contamination were both significantly (p ; . 05) more pervasive (30. 6 percent and 73. 8 percent, respectively) than they were among clean and mint currency notes. Lower-denomination notes were more likely to be contaminated than were higher-denomination notes, although the difference was not statistically significant (p ; . 05). Personal hygiene to reduce risk of infection is recommended. Microbial contaminants may be transmitted either directly, through hand-to-hand contact, or indirectly, via food or other inanimate objects.These routes of transmission are of great importance in the health of many populations in developing countries, where the frequency of infection is a general indication of local hygiene and environmental sanitation levels. (Cooper, 1991). Paper currency is widely exchanged for goods and services in countries worldwide. It is used for every type of commerce, from buying milk at a local store to trafficking in sex and drugs. All this trade is hard on currency , with lower-denomination notes receiving the most handling because they are exchanged many times (Gadsby, 1998).Bacteriological analysis indicated that 133 (53. 2 percent, [95 percent CI: 47. 02-57. 39]) of the second batch of 250 notes were contaminated with bacteria: 37 (52. 9 percent) of the 70 clean notes and 96 (73. 8 percent) of the 130 dirty/mutilated notes. Neither parasite ova nor bacteria were found on the mint notes. Contamination was related to denomination of currency. Contamination with bacteria was most prevalent among the N5 notes (62. 2 percent) and least prevalent among the N500 notes (32. 0 percent). Contamination was also related to the physical condition of the currency.The dirty/mutilated notes also had the highest prevalence of bacterial contamination (73. 8 percent). Among the clean notes, 52. 9 percent were contaminated with bacteria. Chi-square analysis indicated a statistically significant association between bacterial contamination and currency condition (? ^sup 2^ = 79. 030, df = 2, p;. 05). In the study reported here, a random approach was adopted for currency sampling; whatever money was provided was collected. The implication is that the majority of the people are exposed to dirty notes.In Nigeria, poor-currency-handling culture is widespread, and there is indiscriminate abuse of currency notes. A great majority of the populace does not carry money in wallets, and squeezing of currency notes is a common occurrence. Women, especially among the unenlightened, often place money underneath their brassieres, while men place theirs in their socks. These activities not only enhance currency contamination but may also increase the risk of infection from contaminated notes. The situation is further compounded by the inability of the Nigerian government to consistently withdraw old, worn-out, and mutilated notes from circulation.The presence of damaged currency notes and the failure to consistently withdraw them from circulation are comm on phenomena in many parts of Africa and Asia (Gadsby, 1998; Podhajny, 2004). The persistence of damaged or terribly mutilated notes in active circulation (some so damaged that they can no longer be stuck together) could elevate their contributory role in transmission of some pathogens, thereby constituting potential public health hazard. ( Source: Uneke, C. and Ogbu, O. Potential for parasite and bacteria transmission by paper currency in Nigeria. J Environ Health, 69 (2007) 54–60. (1)) CHAPTER 3RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study is to determine the prevalence of E. coli contamination on Philippine Peso bill on Public Utility jeepney (PUJ), specifically on: twenty (20), fifty (50), one hundred (100) pesos. Subjects of the study The subject of the study is the fifteen (15) Public Utility Jeepney drivers routing Jaro-CPU and City Proper bound. On each driver, three (3) Philippine Peso bill samples with amounts: 20, 50 and 100 are to b e collected. Data Gathering 45 peso bills are to be used as sample and will be collected on the month of March 2013 at around 10:00 – 11:00 in the morning.The samples will be taken randomly from 15 Public Utility Jeepney (PUJ) of Jaro – Cpu Route. In each jeepney, three(3) different values: 20, 50, and 100 Php are to be taken and tested, so the total number of samples is 45. The samples collected will be placed in a sealable plastic container, so as to preserve the contaminants on the peso bill. The paper bill will be brought immediately to Central Philippine University, particularly at the Medical Laboratory Science Department Research Lab for confirmatory testing of E. coli. Preparation of Laboratory Materials Needed The following are needed to conduct our study: . ) Sterile cotton swab – will be used in obtaining the possible contaminant on the surface of the paper bill. b. )Eosin Methylene Blue Agar – will be used in the confirmatory test for the pres ence of E. coli The following are the apparatus needed for our study: a. )Petri Dish b. )Alcohol Lamp c. )Oven All of the enumerated materials above will be borrowed from the stockroom of Medical Laboratory Science Department. A letter of permission was given to the stockroom coordinator for authorized use of the materials stated above. Eosin Methylene Blue Agar (EMB) Procedure: 1.Using a sterile cotton swab, swab on the surface of the peso bill then streak it onto an EMB agar. 2. Incubate plates at 35oC for twenty-four(24) hours. 3. After 24 hours, observe the plate as follows: The colonies developing on EMB agar plates may be divides as: Typical – nucleated with or without metallic sheen Atypical – opaque, pink mucoid, non-nucleated Negative – no growth or clear watery, or clear colonies Interpretation of Data Philippine peso paper bill that will give a negative reaction on the EMB agar plate is considered not contaminated with E. coli and is safe for everyday domestic use.There will be no growth or clear watery or clear colonies. On the other hand, water sample that yielded a positive result in E. coli analysis is considered to be contaminated with E. coli bacteria and is not safe. There would be a typical nucleated with or without metallic sheen. Central Philippine University Jaro, Iloilo City College of Arts and Sciences __________________ __________________ __________________ __________________ Sir/Madam, We, the 3rd yearBachelor in Medical Laboratory Science students of Central Philippine University who are currently enrolled in the subject Research is conducting a study entitled Prevalence of E. oli in Philippine Peso Bill. This is a requirement for the completion of the subject in Research 1. In line withthis, we are respectfully requesting you to be one of the respondents of our study by exchanging such peso bills: 20, 50 and 100 respectively that has been collected as commuter’s fare. We need this data for the completion of this study. Your positive response to this request is highly appreciated. Thank you and God bless. Respectfully yours, JUSTINE GRACE JIMENEA ISAAC JAMES LEDESMA MAJA HANNAH LOU LOJA ROBERTO MANALO Jr. JIRAH PEDROSA Researchers Noted by: DR. MA. CORAZON PORRAS Research Adviser BibliographyAbel, Andrew;  Bernanke, Ben  (2005). â€Å"7†. Macroeconomics(5th ed. ). Pearson. pp. 266–269. ISBN  0-201-32789-9. Ahmed, S. U. , S. Parveen, T. Nasreen and B. Feroza, 2010. Evaluation of The Microbial Contamination of Bangladesh Paer Currency Notes (Taka) in Circulation. Advances in Biological Res. , 4 (5):266-271. Aidoo, Kofi (2011). Microbiology Today Answers. ask. com/Health/Diseases/how_does_e_coli_grow, 2010 Bernstein, Peter,  A Primer on Money and Banking, and Gold, Wiley, 2008 edition, pp29-39 Bhat, B. , S. Bhat, K. Asawa and A. Agarwal, 2010. An assessment of oral health risk associated with handling of currency notes. Int. J.Dntal Clinics, 2(3): 14-16. Bioweb. uw lax. edu/bio203/s2008/moder_just/habitat. htm, 2008 Boyle, David  (2006). The Little Money Book. 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